Water Pollution in India and Its Toll on Rivers and People

Water pollution in India has escalated into one of the nation’s most urgent environmental crises, threatening public health, ecosystems and the economy. Home to 18% of the world’s population but just 4% of global freshwater resources, the country is under immense pressure to safeguard its limited supply. Yet, rivers, lakes and groundwater reserves continue to deteriorate under the combined strain of urbanisation, industrial growth, intensive agriculture and cultural practices.

Drinking Water from Tap Is a Bad Idea in India

Across India’s vast river network, pollution has reached levels that jeopardise drinking water, irrigation, fisheries and the livelihoods of millions. Despite multiple clean-up missions, several rivers remain among the world’s most contaminated in 2025 — and in much of the country, the idea of safely drinking water from the tap is still unimaginable.

How Polluted Is the Water in India?

A 2022–23 review by the Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB), covering 2,116 river locations, found 296 polluted river stretches. Although this reflects a 15.67% decline from 2018, when 351 stretches were classified as polluted, the scale of river contamination remains alarming.

In India, a “polluted river stretch” refers to a continuous segment of a river where water quality consistently falls below acceptable standards.

Only 62% of monitored river sites met the permissible biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) limit of less than 3 mg per L, meaning 38% failed even basic water quality norms.

Several stretches recorded BOD levels above 30 mg per L, indicating dangerously high organic waste loads. These zones, categorised as “Priority 1” stretches, have declined slightly — from 45 in 2018 to 37 in 2023 — yet they continue to represent some of the worst cases of pollution in the country.

High levels of faecal contamination compound the crisis. Many Central Water Commission monitoring stations detected faecal coliform far above the safe limit of 500 MPN (most probable number) per 100 mL, including polluted sections of the Arkavathy in Karnataka and the Mahanadi in Odisha. The traditional approach to water quality monitoring is also unsatisfactory.

Water Pollution in Indian Rivers

The Ganga, Yamuna, Mithi and Musi remain among India’s most polluted rivers.

The Yamuna — Delhi’s primary water source — continues to carry enormous toxic substances. As part of Mission Yamuna Cleanup, officials reported removing 1,300 tonnes of waste by March 2025. Yet, the improvement proved short-lived. By November, toxic foam had reappeared, and 641 million L of untreated sewage was still entering the river each day.

The Ganga faces a similar battle. Supporting nearly 500 million people, the river remains heavily polluted despite decades of intervention. In 2024, the National Green Tribunal reported dangerously high faecal coliform throughout the river’s West Bengal stretch and noted that 258.67 million litres of untreated sewage were flowing into it daily.

Government spending underscores the scale of the challenge. According to DevelopmentAid, USD 1.63 billion has been spent on Ganga cleanup projects, and USD 1 billion on the Yamuna since 1993. Yet, both rivers remain far from restored.

Causes and Effects of Water Pollution in India

Untreated sewage is the largest source of water pollution in India, while other factors include agricultural runoff and unchecked industrial waste dumping.

Sewage Treatment Gap

India generates vast quantities of sewage daily, but treatment infrastructure has lagged behind rapid urbanisation. Many sewage treatment plants operate below capacity due to technical or administrative failures. As a result, rivers serve as de facto drains for untreated or partially treated wastewater.

Industrial Effluents

Industries such as textiles, leather processing, pharmaceuticals and chemicals continue to discharge toxic waste into waterways. The Environment (Protection) Act of 1986 prohibits such pollution, yet enforcement is inconsistent.

Environmental specialist Satish Sinha of Toxics Links told FairPlanet: “The industries are supposed to treat chemical waste through segregation before its disposal as laid down by the Central Pollution Control Board.” Sinha added, “But unfortunately, the treatment they perform may be inadequate, contaminating the surface and groundwater.”

Agricultural Runoff

Agriculture, the backbone of India’s economy, is also a major source of pollution. Excessive use of fertilisers and pesticides contributes to nutrient loading, particularly during monsoons. Rivers such as the Satluj in Punjab have experienced oxygen-depleting algal blooms due to high nitrogen and phosphorus runoff.

Faecal Contamination

Inadequate sanitation remains a significant driver of contamination. Poor waste disposal and open defecation in some regions have led to high concentrations of faecal coliform in rivers serving densely populated communities.

Cultural Practices

Rituals involving idol immersion, cremation and mass bathing — particularly in the Ganga and Yamuna — add to the rivers’ biological and chemical loads.

Mining and Fly Ash Pollution

Mining operations often release heavy metals into streams, while coal-fired power plants produce massive quantities of toxic fly ash. India generated nearly 340 million tonnes of fly ash in the 2024-2025 financial year, with some of the country’s largest coal companies lobbying to relax disposal regulations.

Untreated Sewage and Improper Disposal of Waste

Plastic waste, construction debris and household garbage often end up in India’s rivers and drains due to inadequate waste management systems, further degrading water quality.

The consequences are stark. An estimated 35 million Indians still lack access to safe drinking water, underscoring the enormous public health burden created by contaminated rivers and inadequate sanitation systems.

India’s Groundwater Contamination Crisis

The contamination is not limited to surface water. India, the world’s largest consumer of groundwater, now faces a parallel crisis underground. Groundwater supports 87% of agricultural irrigation and 11% of domestic water use, making pollution particularly dangerous for food security.

The Central Ground Water Board’s 2024 report found worrying levels of nitrates, fluoride, arsenic and even uranium across multiple states. Nearly 20% of samples exceeded nitrate limits; 9.04% surpassed fluoride limits; and arsenic contamination was found in 3.55% of samples.

Fluoride Contamination

Fluoride contamination alone affects over 60 million people across 21 states. Arsenic exposure is particularly severe in rice-growing regions such as West Bengal, where contaminated irrigation water has led to arsenic accumulation in crops.

Water Pollution in India: A Public Health Emergency

Polluted and contaminated water disproportionately affects poorer and rural communities, increasing the burden of serious health risks and waterborne illnesses, such as amoebiasis, giardiasis, typhoid, cholera and hepatitis A.

The UN estimates 37.7 million Indians suffer from waterborne diseases annually, while a Lancet study attributed 1.4 million deaths in 2019 to water pollution.

Long-term exposure to fluoride in drinking water can cause dental and skeletal fluorosis. A study on the Manbhum-Singhbhum Plateau found that about 54% of residents were affected, facing physical disabilities, social exclusion and high school dropout rates.

Can Policy Interventions Reverse Water Pollution Damage?

The government has launched multiple initiatives — from the long-running National River Conservation Plan to the 2014 Namami Gange programme and the Smart Cities Mission. In August 2025, it reported allocating more than USD 1.13 billion over three years to expand sewage treatment capacity and curb river pollution.

States are also innovating. Odisha’s “Drink from Tap” mission, implemented by the Water Corporation of Odisha, has emerged as a national model, demonstrating how strong governance can ensure safe drinking water directly from household taps.

At the same time, regulatory oversight is evolving. New Ministry of Environment, Forest & Climate Change (MoEFCC) guidelines issued in January 2025 introduce a unified digital approval system and, for the first time, mandate minimum separation distances between industries and water bodies. High-polluting sectors must now operate at least 500 metres from surface water.

These measures aim to strengthen compliance while reshaping India’s industrial planning for decades to come.

The Road Ahead for Clean Water in India

India’s water crisis is no longer a distant warning — it is a present reality with far-reaching consequences for public health, food security and economic stability.

Government initiatives have delivered pockets of progress, but the persistent water contamination of major rivers and widespread groundwater pollution reveal the limits of fragmented or reactive approaches.

As India continues its rapid development trajectory, the challenge is not simply to clean what has been polluted, but to fundamentally rethink how water is governed, valued and protected.